Psilocybe is a diverse genus, and many species have evolved to fill numerous environmental niches, but none are quite as weird and unique as the hallucinogenic pouch fungus of Aotearoa (New Zealand), Psilocybe weraroa.
Psilocybe weraroa is referred to as a “secotioid” fungus — these types of fungi exist in an intermediate form between mushroom and puffball or truffle-like fungi. Despite having gills, the cap doesn’t open to release the spores. Most fungi typically resemble the other species in their particular genus—the stem, cap, and gills sharing similar features that can be used taxonomically. But every now and then, a mushroom will do something a little quirky (many of us are familiar with albino strains, as is the case with Psilocybe cubensis) and, in response to selection pressures in its environment, a species may adopt an alternative lifecycle.

Psilocybin-containing mushrooms are widely regarded as being safe. There are caveats about being cautious while foraging so as not to pick the wrong species, strategies around reducing some mild gastrointestinal discomfort for some people when consuming, and caution with some health issues; otherwise, there are few risks.
So imagine being a couple of hours into your psychedelic journey and everything is going well. You get up to walk around a bit, but suddenly your legs become weak and you find yourself needing to sit or lie down, then unable to move them. This is one of the general presentations for the toxidrome (a portmanteau of “toxic” and “syndrome”) referred to as “wood-lover’s paralysis,” or WLP.

In recent years, foraging for mushrooms has become increasingly popular for many who seek fungi to sate their appetite, explore new flavors, or heal their pains — but it is important to be aware that foraging mushrooms isn’t without its risks.
Fungi have an impressive alchemical repertoire capable of creating a diverse array of chemicals for decomposition and defense. We are just beginning to get a sense of their chemical accomplishments, and while some of their compounds can be life-changing in a variety of ways, some can also cause significant health issues.

The Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) mushroom carries significant cultural mystique. It’s one of the most recognizable mushrooms and also one of the most well-known entheogens. Entire books delve into the various theories about its use and the subsequent cultural implications. Even children’s stories allude to its magical properties. But did you know that some related mushroom species also contain the same psychoactive compounds? The Panther Cap (Amanita pantherina), with its brown cap with white warts, is often overshadowed by its bright showy relative. The Panther Cap is mysterious—little is said about it other than as a passing aside. But, the potent mushroom has as many reasons to merit discussion.

The word “mushrooms” is one of those evocative words, said with an excited tone or a serious one. People often talk about mushrooms with fond memories. Others speak about mushrooms as something to be cautious of and respect. There are plenty of good reasons for apprehension: Eating the wrong mushrooms can make you very sick or turn out to be deadly. Yet, there’s no need for mycophobia. Fungi are everywhere; they are crucial parts of all ecosystems. The more you are aware of mushrooms, the more you’ll realize that fungi are all around us. Learning how to identify magic mushrooms and understand your local fungi can help you feel more in touch with the environment and understand the ecology of your area.
In this article, our focus is on the identification of fungi from the genus Psilocybe. Although, it’s important to remember that no amount of text can substitute for real first-hand knowledge of fungi. Fungi are very sensory; their texture, smell, and the way the light falls on the various parts of the mushroom can give essential clues to identification. Still, it’s worth mentioning that many useful features can aid in identifying a genus and eventually an individual species—but we cannot cover all of those here. This guide is an introduction to identifying magic mushrooms for beginners. But, it should not replace the help and guidance of experienced local mycologists. Rather, it’s meant to pique curiosity and help you learn what to study.

Sceletium tortuosum is a little-known psychoactive plant from South Africa. It has a variety of common names, including kanna, canna, canna-root, channa, gunna, kougoed, kauwgoed, Kauwgood, Kon (meaning “quid”), and Kou. Kougoed (and therefore “kanna” through association) means ‘chew(able) things’ or ‘something to chew’. Part of the confusion around the naming is that various different plants have been called “kanna”, “canna”, or “kouged”. Additionally, kanna shares its name with the eland antelope, the most revered animal in the cultures of the South African Bushmen and Hottentots, who are said to have named the plant after the antelope.

While kanna is legal in all countries, it has received little attention outside of South Africa. Its main active constituents are mesembrine and mesembrenone. Although some writers have described it as a hallucinogen, kanna is only mildly psychoactive and often used with other plants, particularly cannabis or dagga (Lion’s Tail or Leonotis leonurus), but it is not considered a psychedelic.

Tobacco is one of the most widely used psychoactive plants on the planet, with a rich history and dynamic narrative. It is made from the leaves of plants from the genus Nicotiana, native to North and South America and Australia. The most well-known species are Nicotiana rustica and Nicotiana tabacum. While traditionally used as an offering, for blessings, and for intentional ingestion as part of spiritual practices, tobacco has been largely commercialized in the modern Western world, where it is sold as cigarettes, snuff, or chewing tobacco. In this context, tobacco has come to be known as an addictive, high-risk substance. Yet, in many parts of the world, it remains a medicinal plant and an essential part of spiritual practices. Tobacco smoke is used to cleanse, protect, and carry intention. Through this guide, we aim to reframe tobacco and support and encourage education around the intentional use of this plant.

In the 1960’s something interesting happened — a “rediscovery” of entheogens had a dramatic effect on western culture. These cultural changes were expressed by dramatic shifts in art, fashion, appearance, and behavior. A rejection of existing cultural values and a strong sense of freedom. Art and music began to reflect the cultural change and the effects of the substances being used. This was seen most dramatically in music, the emergence of musicians like Bob Dylan with lyrics deeply critical of society, the transition of The Beatles from pop-rock to their deeply poetic psychedelic rock, and the emergence of bands like Pink Floyd and the Doors whose music felt inspired by the psychedelic experience.
The world had been growing smaller, having gone through two world wars, the emergence of the industrial-military complex, international travel, and advances in communication. The appearance of mass media in the 20th century allowed rapid dissemination of not only news and information, but also communicated social mores, expected behavior, and the ideals of the American dream. At some stage in the narrative, there was a tipping point. The 1960s suddenly became a melting pot of new ideas, anti-war, civil rights, and gender equality. Dissatisfied youths caught a wave of revolution, and it peaked during the mid to late sixties.

The prohibition of Entheogens is an anomaly in the history of plant medicines. Many cultures have sought the divine through changes in consciousness, breathing techniques, singing & dancing, and using a variety of plant medicines we refer to as entheogens.

A large part of our understanding of how entheogens have been used comes from the sophisticated techniques of traditional cultures. For example, Ayahuasca from the Shipibo and other groups of the Upper Amazon, Eboga from the Bwiti of Gabon, psilocybin-containing mushrooms from the Mazatec of Oaxaca, among many others the world over.

In human history, there have been waves of civilization, many of which accepted entheogens as part of their culture: The Soma of the Hindu Vedas, Huachuma at Chavin de Huantar, Teonanacatl used by the Aztecs, the healers we refer to as “witches” or “alchemists” of the middle ages. Other traditions have been lost to history, but from the evidence we can glean of the past, these substances were highly revered, even personified as gods.

For most of us, the consciousness we experience in our day-to-day lives, what we perceive to be “normal,” is directed towards just that, the day-to-day. We are blinkered both culturally and neuropharmacologically to focus on the task in front of us. When we relax, this state changes, our mind wanders, crossing between multiple ongoing internal narratives in a matter of moments, school, work, dinner tonight, dinner tomorrow, children, parents, partners. A powerful aspect of our day-to-day thought process is placating those thoughts about our mortality or questions around our purpose and what we value as important. Many people find solace in long-standing belief systems of traditions that provide a reassuring sense of purpose, while others find their own private beliefs. In some societies, there is the socially sanctioned use of entheogenic compounds to find self and find the divine.
Entheogens remove us from our day-to-day experience of life and, in some cases, remove us from time and space, imparting a sense of the infinite. By removing ourselves from the usual, by suspending our social context, through psychological transformation, we can often gain a better perspective of who we are and what we want from life – to see complex events in our lives in new ways and start a healing process. It may seem like a cliche, but humans have stared at the stars since time immemorial, wondering about their place in the universe; in a similar sense, humans have used entheogens to help find a renewed sense of perspective.

The discussion around psychedelics and their use as adjuncts to therapy has been increasingly gaining attention, alongside a growing enthusiasm around “plant medicines” as alternatives to currently accepted treatments. This renaissance comes from growing evidence that psychedelics can help treat mental health issues such as PTSD, depression, end of life distress, OCD, and addiction. Plant medicines have been used for spirituality, healing, and community since time unknown, and we now find ourselves turning back to the plants for healing.
There are many vision-inducing plants found in nature, with many cultures having sought the divine through changes in consciousness, breathing techniques, singing & dancing, and a variety of plant medicines: the Soma of the Hindu Vedas, Huachuma at Chavin de Huantar, Teonanacatl used by the Aztecs, and the amazonian brew Ayahuasca represent a handful of sacred plants. We refer to these plants as entheogens.

San Pedro is a popular South American cactus. It is one of the easiest (if not the easiest) ethnobotanical plants to grow. If gifted a cutting, all you need to do is plant it in the right kind of soil and leave it be. From there, it will grow roots and before you know it, it will be putting on new emerald green growth. In contrast, many other ethnobotanical plants can be challenging to obtain, with long hours scouring forums, not to mention the challenge of germinating them. Psychotria viridis, for example, takes six to nine months for germination. Then there is the process of keeping them alive! This is not to say San Pedro doesn’t have its challenges; however, depending on where you live, they can be a “plant and forget” species. Still, to make the most of your cactus, regular attention rewards the grower.

The San Pedro cactus, also known as Trichocereus pachanoi or torch cactus, is a columnar cactus from South America, named and described by Britton & Rose. Also known as huachuma, it is one of many mescaline-containing cacti found throughout the Andes Mountains of Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In recent history, San Pedro has been overshadowed by peyote, also known as Lophophora williamsii. Given the concerns around the conservation status of peyote and the preservation of cultural practices, San Pedro is often suggested as an alternative for those who are curious about mescaline.

“San Pedro” can be used to also refer to Trichocereus peruvianus (Echinopsis peruviana) or Peruvian torch, Trichocereus bridgesii (Echinopsis lageniformis) or Bolivian torch, and Trichocereus macrogonus (Echinopsis macrogona). What we know as Trichocereus pachanoi is officially known as Echinopsis pachanoi, but most collectors, cultivators, and experts on the group continue to use Trichocereus.

With the growing interest in the medicinal benefits of psilocybin for treating a range of mental health problems, it follows that there is greater interest in where psilocybin comes from. Psilocybin is one of the classic psychedelics, a natural compound found within psilocybin-containing mushrooms from the genus Psilocybe. Psilocybe is a diverse genus, with species found on all continents (except Antarctica) within various habitats. It turns out that psilocybin-containing fungi are quite widespread with other genera—including Gymnopilus, Inocybe, and Conocybe—also containing psilocybin.

Fungi have always had an association with some element of the magical, and as we investigate these associations in more detail, we find their use in surprising places. The use of Psilocybe in Central America and Amanita muscaria among the shamans of Siberia is well documented. There is also some evidence that the fungus ergot was part of the Eleusinian mysteries. Records of other fungi used in ceremony appear in academic literature, including a Boletus used in the curious “mushroom madness” of the Kuma of New Guinea, and the use of a Lycoperdon puffball in northern Mexico among the Tarahumara of Chihuahua for divination. Despite mentions in literature, some references lack detail, with further investigations revealing either ritual practices or other entheogens as the cause for the altered states of consciousness.

For some, Psilocybe subaeruginosa—also known as “P. subs”—is an exotic species, a curiosity from “Down Under.” Yet, this species is by no means rare. Australia has two main psilocybe species: the tropical/subtropical Psilocybe cubensis and the temperate eucalyptus-loving Psilocybe subaeruginosa. The former is an introduced species, and the latter grows natively in the Australian southeast.
In Australia, Psilocybe subaeruginosa is a very common—and in some cases, potentially weedy—species found in forests, parks, playgrounds, and scattered around universities. The species occurs as far south as Maatsuyker Island, a rugged island off the south coast of Tasmania, and as far north as Southeast Queensland—a considerable distribution and dynamic range of habitats and substrates. It’s even known to occur in the central business district (CBD) of Melbourne.

The San Pedro plant is one of many mescaline-containing cacti found throughout the Andes Mountains of Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In recent history, San Pedro has been overshadowed by peyote, aka Lophophora williamsii. Given its geographical distribution from Mexico into Texas, peyote has gained prominence in popular culture, first as the sacrament of the Native American Church, then as a psychedelic used by the counterculture of the 60s and 70s.

More recently, however, concerns have arisen around the sustainability and ethics surrounding peyote. As it becomes increasingly rare due to over-harvesting from popular use, many argue that it should be strictly preserved for indigenous cultural practices. San Pedro, on the other hand, is a fast-growing cactus, so many view it as a better alternative for experiencing mescaline. Still, it is important to recognize that San Pedro, also known as “torch cactus” or “huachuma”, also has a rich cultural history for indigenous groups in the Andean Mountains.

Significant cultures of South America that embraced psychoactive plants include those of the Chimu, the Moche, and, particularly, the Chavin. Chavin de Huantar, located in Ancash, Northern Peru, sits on the edge of a small township set on a narrow plain nestled between the surrounding mountains. To the west is a steep mountain, the slope dotted with huge ancient-looking columnar cacti. To the right, in a field, sits a cluster of buildings that protect the ancient ceremonial site, the plaza, and the underground chambers.

In 1977, Steven H. Pollock discovered something quite unusual. The then thirty-year-old physician and mycologist frequently collected mushroom samples to study in his mobile laboratory, which he drove from Texas to Tampa, Florida late that summer. Yet, Pollock could never have anticipated the surprise that one of his newfound specimens had in store.
For weeks, the scientist cultivated the unknown Psilocybe in his lab—routine practice for mycologists. Then it happened: Several small lumps formed on the mycelium. Mycelium normally look like whisper-thin cobwebs spread throughout the soil; these lumps looked more like kefir grain. In time, the lumps grew larger. Pollock’s curiosity piqued. He described, dissected, and sampled the lumps in a bioassay. The results of his experiments revealed the true treasure that Pollock had in his possession: a new species. And a psychoactive one to boot.

“Blue Meanies” is the common name for Panaeolus cyanescens. The name says a lot about this species; they turn dark blue when picked and can certainly pack a punch. Panaeolus cyanescens are one of the more potent psilocybin-containing mushrooms, despite their unassuming stature. P. cyanescens produces small medium-sized brown to white mushrooms that are easy for amateur enthusiasts to overlook.
Mushrooms from the genus Panaeolus are very common; they grow globally in tropical and temperate environments. Panaeolus cyanescens is a tropical/subtropical grassland species, often found in dung—just like another familiar mushroom we know. If you were not aware of Blue Meanies, you could easily miss a patch while foraging for the more popular Psilocybe cubensis. The former is believed to contain two to three times the psilocybin found in cubensis.

In 1942 mycologist Elise Wakefield published a description of a curious mushroom she had observed growing in London’s Kew Gardens. Due to its similarity to a species known from the United States, it was placed in the genus Psilocybe, with the binomial name Psilocybe cyanescens. Wakefield took note of the mushroom’s apparent bluing reaction at the time. Still, it would be another 20 years before the cause of the bruising in this species was identified—the oxidation of the compound psilocin.
As conversations around magic mushrooms become more common and increasingly positive, there has been a growing interest in the number and variety of Psilocybe species. Of these, a few have always been iconic. Psilocybe cubensis aka “Gold Top,” Psilocybe semilanceata known as the “Liberty Cap,” and Psilocybe cyanescens the “Wavy cap,” so-called because of its distinguishing feature: a sinusoidal wavy top.

Known by numerous names—Liberty Caps, Blue Legs, Pixie Caps, Witches Hats—Psilocybe semilanceata is an unassuming innocent-looking mushroom, often happily growing next to many similar species, including Panaeolus spp. and Protostropharia semiglobata. Like Psilocybe cubensis, Liberty Caps grow in fields and pastures, but prefer the cold of temperate climates. Found growing in fall and spring, these delicate-looking, slender mushrooms are among the most potent Psilocybe species.
After Psilocybe cubensis, P. semilanceata is perhaps one of the best known of the Psilocybe genus. Most often referred to as “Liberty Caps,” this species has a fascinating history and is responsible for the first reported European magic mushroom trip in 1799. P. semilanceata became popular in Europe in the 1960s for its psychoactive properties after French botanist Roger Heim and Albert Hofmann identified it as containing psilocybin. In 2009, P. similanceata became the type species of the genus Psilocybe – the species that defines the genus – after a reassessment of both Deconica and Psilocybe. Psilocybe was nearly renamed, but due to the legal implications, the blue bruising species retained the name Psilocybe.

Amanita muscaria mushrooms are a widespread and highly noticeable mushroom found in temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. Commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita mushroom, this iconic, large red mushroom with its white spots is one of the most recognizable fungi in popular culture. Illustrations of A. muscaria mushrooms fill many children’s books, forming associations with magic, fairies, and the illusory world of the imagination.

Amanita muscaria has a mixed reputation. For many, it inspires either love or hate, a cautionary approach, or mild respect and curiosity. If we think of the term mycophobia, the fly agaric is undoubtedly the first fungus to come to mind.

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Amanita muscaria is endemic to temperate and boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere. It is found growing in association with deciduous trees, including birch (e.g., Silver Birch, Betula pendula), conifers (e.g., Pinus spp.), and firs. As a result of the commercial cultivation of various ornamental trees, A. muscaria has been introduced to many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and South America. They are recognized as being a “weedy” species—they can be commonly found in a variety of urban environments and are known to be opportunistic.